The United Arab Emirates has developed one of the region’s most comprehensive legal frameworks to protect social harmony and religious tolerance. Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023 Concerning Combating Discrimination, Hatred and Extremism (which repealed and replaced Federal Decree Law No. 2 of 2015 on Combating Discrimination and Hatred) establishes strict criminal penalties for discrimination, hate speech, extremism and religious contempt. For individuals and businesses operating in the United Arab Emirates, understanding what this law prohibits, how it is enforced and how to comply in practice is an essential part of legal risk management.
This legal article explains the structure and key provisions of the current United Arab Emirates anti-discrimination framework, highlights hate speech United Arab Emirates penalties, clarifies how religious discrimination United Arab Emirates law is applied in real scenarios, and offers practical compliance guidance for employers, managers, content creators and professionals who wish to ensure that their conduct aligns with the law and with the values of tolerance and coexistence it protects.
Legal Framework Combating Discrimination and Hatred in the UAE
Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023 Concerning Combating Discrimination, Hatred and Extremism was issued in 2023 and published on the official United Arab Emirates legislation portal. Article 25 of this Decree Law expressly repeals Federal Decree Law No. 2 of 2015 on Combating Discrimination and Hatred and any provision that conflicts with the new text, thereby confirming that Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023 is the primary legislation in this field.
According to the official legislation portal and earlier announcements by the United Arab Emirates Cabinet, the law criminalises any form of discrimination based on religion, creed, sect, race, colour, ethnic origin, gender or sex (taking into account the laws in force in the State), as well as acts that stoke religious hatred or insult religion through speech, writing, publications or online media. Depending on the offence and statutory conditions, penalties under Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023 include imprisonment terms starting from 6 months, imprisonment terms of not less than 10 years for establishing or managing certain prohibited entities, and, in the specific case stated in Article 10(2), execution, in addition to fines that range up to 2,000,000 United Arab Emirates Dirhams.
The law is listed as Active on the official United Arab Emirates Legislation platform, with an issued date of 28 September 2023, publication in the Official Gazette on 29 September 2023 (Issue No. 760), and an effective date of 29 October 2023, under the title “Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023 Concerning Combating Discrimination, Hatred and Extremism. ” The portal sets out the authoritative text of the law, including its definitions, offences and penalties. The law applies across all Emirates and to all individuals on the territory of the United Arab Emirates, regardless of nationality. It also applies to legal persons in specific circumstances where a crime is committed in the name of or for the benefit of a corporate entity (Article 17).
According to the United Arab Emirates Cabinet and the United Arab Emirates Public Prosecution, the primary objective of the anti-discrimination and anti-hatred legislation is to provide a sound legal foundation for an environment of tolerance, peaceful coexistence and respect for religious, cultural and social diversity. Article 2 of Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023 confirms that the penalties set out in the Decree Law apply without prejudice to any more severe penalty stipulated in another law.
For businesses, this means that policies, internal communications, advertising, social media activities and dealings with employees, customers and the public must be evaluated in light of this legislation, alongside the general provisions of the United Arab Emirates Penal Code and sector-specific regulations. The anti-discrimination framework operates in parallel with other criminal, employment and regulatory regimes rather than replacing them.
Key Definitions Discrimination Hate Speech and Extremism
The effectiveness of the United Arab Emirates anti-discrimination framework depends on how core concepts are defined. Article 1 of Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023 and the official United Arab Emirates legislation portal provide structured definitions that guide enforcement and compliance.
Discrimination
Under Article 1 of Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023, discrimination is defined as any distinction, restriction, exclusion or preference between individuals or groups on the basis of religion, creed, sect, race, colour, ethnic origin, gender or sex, taking into account the laws in force in the State. Legal commentary and guidance from United Arab Emirates legal practitioners emphasise that discrimination may occur in a wide range of contexts, including employment, access to services, public discourse, and interpersonal conduct, when such differentiation results in prejudice, unequal treatment or exclusion.
Hate speech
Article 1 defines hate speech as any statement or action that might incite discord, strife or discrimination between individuals or groups. The official text clarifies that hate speech can be committed through any means of expression, including electronic means, broadcast media and traditional forms of expression. This covers a broad spectrum of communication, from public speeches and printed materials to social media posts, images, recordings and online comments.
Extremism
Under Article 1, extremism refers to any action carried out by one or more persons or groups, motivated by ideas, ideologies, values or principles that would disrupt public order, express blasphemy, discriminate or incite hate speech. This concept is particularly relevant for groups, associations or organised campaigns that use religious or ideological narratives to justify hatred, discrimination or violent conduct, and it links the anti-discrimination regime with the broader framework combating extremism in the United Arab Emirates.
Methods and means of expression
Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023 deliberately maintains a technology-neutral approach. Article 1 specifies that methods of expression include speaking, writing, drawing, pointing, photographing, singing, acting and gesturing. “Means” include information networks, communications networks, websites, industrial materials, information technology means and any means of reading, audio or visual media. This ensures that the law applies equally to traditional print publications, television and radio broadcasts, workplace presentations and digital content such as emails, instant messaging applications and social media platforms.
For employers, human resources departments and communications teams, the breadth of these definitions means that not only formal corporate statements, but also employee conduct in internal chats, informal forums and unofficial social media activity can trigger liability when linked to their role or when such conduct occurs in the workplace or in a public context within the United Arab Emirates.
Prohibited Conduct and Hate Speech Penalties
Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023 sets out a detailed catalogue of crimes related to blasphemy, discrimination, hatred and extremism, together with graduated penalties. Awareness campaigns by the United Arab Emirates Public Prosecution and media coverage confirm that these provisions are actively enforced and that individuals and businesses can face serious consequences if they breach them.
Blasphemy and religious contempt
The law treats offences against religion with particular gravity. Article 4 provides that any person who commits any of the following acts is deemed to have committed the crime of blasphemy:
- Slandering, challenging or insulting the Divine Essence.
- Insulting, defaming, slandering, mocking or cursing any of the recognised religions or any of their rituals or sanctities, or disrupting the holding of licensed religious rituals or celebrations, or disrupting them with violence or threats.
- Infringing on any of the divine books by distorting, destroying, desecrating or insulting them in any way.
- Insulting, mocking, defaming or cursing any of the prophets, messengers, or their wives, family or companions.
- Destroying, damaging or abusing houses of worship, cemeteries, graves or their annexes or any of their contents.
Depending on the seriousness of the offence and the provisions of the relevant articles, these acts are punishable with significant prison terms and fines, often in the higher range of the statutory scale. Public information campaigns have highlighted that insulting religions, divine books, cemeteries or houses of worship can lead to imprisonment and substantial fines, particularly where violence or public disorder is involved.
Discrimination
Under Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023, the offence of discrimination remains a central element of the regime. Article 6 provides that any person who commits an act that would cause any form of discrimination by any means of expression or by using any means is punishable by imprisonment for a period of not less than 1 year and a fine of not less than 500,000 and not more than 1,000,000 United Arab Emirates Dirhams. Public Prosecution communications and local media reporting continue to quote these parameters when highlighting penalties for discriminatory conduct, including racist comments or content shared in online videos and posts.
Hate speech
Hate speech United Arab Emirates penalties are now set out in Article 7 of Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023. The official legislation portal confirms that any person who commits an act that would incite hate speech by any means of expression, or by using any of the means defined in the law, is punishable by:
- Imprisonment for a period not less than 1 year, and
- A fine of not less than 500,000 and not more than 1,000,000 United Arab Emirates Dirhams, or one of these two penalties.
The scope of inciting hate speech remains broad and covers public calls for hostility against individuals or groups on protected grounds, campaigns that normalise contemptuous or demeaning language towards certain communities, and materials that seek to create division or hostility among nationalities, ethnicities or religious communities residing in the United Arab Emirates.
Tribal or communal strife
Article 8 introduces and maintains a specific offence for inciting tribal strife with the intention of inciting hatred between individuals and groups. Under the official text, any person who uses a method of expression or means to incite tribal strife with the intention of inciting hatred between individuals and groups is punishable by imprisonment for a period not less than 6 months and a fine of not less than 50,000 United Arab Emirates Dirhams, or one of these two penalties. This provision is particularly relevant in a culturally and tribally diverse environment, where language or behaviour that inflames tensions between communities is prohibited.
Aggravated circumstances
Article 9 of Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023 provides that where offences of blasphemy, discrimination or hate speech (as set out in Articles 5, 6 and 7) are committed by a public employee during, because of or on the occasion of performing their work, or by a person with a religious capacity or in charge of religious matters, or if the act occurs in a house of worship, such circumstances constitute an aggravating factor. In these cases, the penalty may be temporary imprisonment for a period not exceeding 5 years and a fine of not less than 500,000 United Arab Emirates Dirhams, particularly where the conduct leads to a breach of public peace. The law therefore places a heightened responsibility on officials, religious figures and institutions to avoid any conduct that could be seen as promoting hatred or discrimination.
Religious Discrimination and Protection of Places of Worship
Religious discrimination United Arab Emirates law is a core aspect of Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023, which is expressly framed as a measure to protect religious freedom, peaceful coexistence and respect for recognised religions, rather than to suppress legitimate private belief or ordinary social interaction.
Prohibition of religious discrimination
Discrimination based on religion, creed or sect is expressly prohibited. In practice, this means that individuals and organisations may not:
- Refuse services, access or opportunities to others because of their religion or sect.
- Circulate content that denigrates, ridicules or demeans a particular religion or its followers.
- Use religious affiliation as a basis for promoting exclusion, marginalisation or superiority over others.
The law is primarily criminal in nature and does not, by itself, create a comprehensive civil anti-discrimination regime of the type found in some other jurisdictions. However, its criminal sanctions are significant and may operate alongside contractual, employment or regulatory claims in appropriate cases, for example where discriminatory conduct also breaches labour law, consumer protection law or professional licensing requirements.
Protection of houses of worship
Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023 criminalises the destruction, damage or desecration of houses of worship, cemeteries and graves, as well as the disruption of licensed religious rituals or celebrations through violence or threats. The definition of houses of worship includes mosques, churches and temples. Individuals or groups that vandalise religious sites or use threats or force to prevent religious ceremonies may face substantial prison terms and fines under the blasphemy and hatred provisions of the Decree Law, in addition to any other applicable offences under the Penal Code.
Misuse of religion to declare others unbelievers
The law also prohibits misusing religion to declare individuals or groups as infidels or unbelievers, which is addressed in the provisions dealing with blasphemy, hatred and extremist rhetoric. Public Prosecution statements and official media coverage have repeatedly highlighted that labelling others as unbelievers in a manner that incites hatred or discrimination is punishable with temporary imprisonment and fines. This framework is designed to prevent extremist narratives that can precede violence or social exclusion and to ensure that theological disputes are not transformed into tools for intimidation, incitement or discrimination in public life.
For businesses, religious discrimination can arise in subtle and indirect ways. Examples include offensive comments about colleagues’ beliefs, biased hiring practices, unequal treatment of employees’ religious holidays or dress, scheduling decisions that disregard recognised religious practices without objective justification, and marketing campaigns that disparage or trivialise symbols associated with certain religions. Even where such conduct originates from individuals, companies can face reputational damage and, in some scenarios, legal exposure if they fail to prevent, address or remediate it appropriately.
Possession Distribution and Organised Promotion of Hate
The United Arab Emirates anti-discrimination and anti-hatred regime extends beyond direct speech or overt actions to cover possession, distribution and organised promotion of hate material and extremist activities. These provisions are particularly relevant in the era of online content, digital marketing and cross-border communications.
Possession and distribution of hate material
Article 12 of Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023 targets any person who obtains or possesses materials that include a method of expression prepared for distribution or communication to others, where the content is intended to show contempt for religions, incite discrimination or encourage hate speech. The penalties for this offence include:
- Imprisonment for a period not less than 1 year, and
- A fine of not less than 50,000 and not more than 200,000 United Arab Emirates Dirhams, or one of these two penalties.
The law covers documents, publications, recordings, films, tapes, discs, computer programmes, smart applications, data in electronic form, industrial materials and other items containing such content. The same penalties apply to any person who knowingly obtains or possesses devices or means of printing, recording, storage, publication, broadcasting or promotion for use in committing offences under the Decree Law.
Practically, this means that storing material that contains hate speech, religious contempt or discriminatory propaganda with an intention to disseminate it, even if not yet circulated, may itself constitute a criminal offence. Businesses that host, reproduce or distribute content, including media companies, publishers, printers, online platforms, data centres and social media intermediaries operating in or from the United Arab Emirates, must therefore implement robust review, moderation and compliance mechanisms.
Establishing or supporting organisations that promote hatred
Articles 13 and 14 of Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023 criminalise the establishment, organisation or management of entities that are used for blasphemy, discrimination or to provoke, encourage or promote hate speech. The penalties include:
- Imprisonment for a period not less than 10 years for founders, organisers or managers of such entities.
- Imprisonment for a period not exceeding 7 years for persons who join, participate in or assist such entities with knowledge of their objectives.
These provisions are central to the law’s role in combating organised extremism, hate groups and structured campaigns that encourage religious or racial hostility. Any association, centre, body, group, organisation or similar entity that uses religious or ideological narratives to promote hostility towards other religions or communities will fall within this framework and may face severe sanctions, including dissolution of events or meetings under Article 15 and confiscation measures.
Application to online and corporate environments
The United Arab Emirates authorities, including the Public Prosecution, have repeatedly highlighted that circulating racist or discriminatory videos, posts or messages on social media platforms can lead to prosecution under the anti-discrimination and anti-hatred legislation. There have been publicised cases where individuals were arrested after posting racist or divisive content that targeted specific nationalities or ethnic groups, reinforcing the message that online behaviour is treated in the same way as offline conduct for the purposes of criminal liability.
For companies, this means:
- Corporate accounts, marketing campaigns, sponsored content and official websites are fully subject to the standards set by Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023.
- Internal messaging systems, intranets, collaboration tools and workplace social platforms must not be used to share discriminatory or hate content, and organisations should maintain and enforce policies that reflect this.
- Hosting, tolerating or failing to address employee groups that propagate discriminatory messages, even informally, carries risk, particularly if such groups appear to be organised, endorsed by management or linked to the company’s name or resources.
Compliance Strategies for Individuals and Businesses in the UAE
In a legal environment where combating hatred and protecting tolerance are central public policies, individuals and organisations should adopt proactive compliance strategies. The objective is not merely to avoid criminal liability but to align internal culture, governance standards and public communication with the values embodied in Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023.
1. Internal policies and codes of conduct
Every business operating in the United Arab Emirates should adopt clear, written policies addressing discrimination, harassment, hate speech, extremism and respect for religions and cultures. These policies should:
- Explicitly reflect the core concepts of the United Arab Emirates anti-discrimination and anti-hatred law, including protected characteristics such as religion, creed, sect, race, colour, ethnic origin, gender and sex.
- Prohibit any form of discrimination, hate speech, extremist advocacy or religious contempt in the workplace, whether face-to-face or through electronic communications.
- Apply to all levels of staff, including senior management, temporary staff and external contractors who act on behalf of the company.
Policies should be formally communicated to employees, integrated into employment contracts, staff handbooks and onboarding processes, and updated regularly to reflect legislative developments and guidance from the United Arab Emirates Public Prosecution and relevant ministries. Codes of conduct should be supported by disciplinary procedures that are clear, consistently applied and aligned with applicable labour laws.
2. Training and awareness
Practical, scenario-based training is critical to ensure that employees understand what the law requires and which behaviours are prohibited. Well-designed training programmes should:
- Explain in practical terms what constitutes discrimination, blasphemy, hate speech and extremist advocacy under United Arab Emirates law, using illustrative case examples relevant to the organisation’s sector and workforce composition.
- Highlight hate speech United Arab Emirates penalties and the potential impact on individuals’ liberty, immigration status, career prospects and professional licensing, as well as on the company’s reputation and regulatory standing.
- Address the specific risks of social media, messaging applications and informal work chats, emphasising that nationality-based jokes, derogatory stereotypes, memes, images or audio clips may have legal consequences when they amount to discrimination, hate speech or religious contempt.
Senior management, human resources professionals, compliance officers and in-house counsel should receive in-depth training on how to respond if allegations arise, including internal investigation methods, documentation standards, escalation protocols and the circumstances in which matters may need to be referred to external legal counsel or the competent authorities.
3. Social media and communications controls
Communications teams, marketing departments and any person responsible for public messaging must treat Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023 as a key legal reference when designing campaigns or responding to public issues. Recommended measures include:
- Implementing a structured legal and compliance review process for advertisements, promotions, external presentations, press releases and official posts to ensure that they do not include, endorse or imply discriminatory, insulting or extremist messages.
- Setting clear internal rules for employees’ use of company branding, logos and professional descriptions (for example, job titles and employer name) on personal social media accounts, emphasising that racist, sectarian or religiously offensive statements made while visibly linked to the employer can damage the organisation and expose individuals to prosecution.
- Monitoring comments and user-generated content on official platforms, where feasible and lawful, and removing content that may violate the law, combined with clear community guidelines explaining that discriminatory or hateful content will not be tolerated and may be reported to the authorities where appropriate.
4. Recruitment, employment and customer interactions
In recruitment, promotion, remuneration, disciplinary action and termination decisions, businesses must avoid any differentiation based on protected characteristics such as religion, creed, sect, race, colour, ethnic origin, gender or sex, unless an objective and lawful justification applies under United Arab Emirates law. While many such issues are traditionally analysed within the framework of labour law and human resources best practice, discriminatory practices can also intersect with the criminal provisions of the anti-discrimination and anti-hatred regime, particularly where patterns of explicit bias, harassment or hostile conduct are evident.
In customer-facing operations, staff should be instructed never to refuse service or treat customers differently due to their religion, nationality, ethnicity or other protected characteristics, and to refrain from engaging in debates or comments that could be perceived as insulting to religious, cultural or ethnic identities. Complaints about religiously or racially offensive conduct by staff should be taken seriously, documented, investigated promptly and addressed with appropriate disciplinary measures, which may range from mandatory training and written warnings to termination of employment and, in serious cases, referral to law enforcement.
5. Reporting, remediation and cooperation with authorities
Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023 includes provisions on exemption from punishment or mitigation for individuals who voluntarily report criminal activities before their completion and whose information helps to prevent or uncover such crimes, reflecting a policy that encourages early reporting and cooperation. In line with these principles, organisations should implement robust internal reporting mechanisms, which may include confidential hotlines or reporting channels, that encourage employees to raise concerns about discriminatory, hateful or extremist conduct at an early stage.
In the event of a suspected violation, companies should:
- Immediately secure relevant evidence, including digital records, access logs, communications and video recordings, while at the same time respecting applicable privacy, data protection and employment law requirements.
- Seek specialist legal advice from a law firm experienced in United Arab Emirates criminal, regulatory and employment matters, particularly where there is a potential for criminal investigation or regulatory scrutiny.
- Consider, based on legal advice, whether self-reporting or formal cooperation with investigative authorities is appropriate, especially where the conduct appears serious, systemic or linked to organised groups or cross-border activity.
Prompt, transparent and responsible action can mitigate legal and reputational risks, demonstrate genuine commitment to compliance and, in some cases, support arguments for leniency or remedial approaches rather than purely punitive outcomes.
6. Role of legal advisers
Because Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023 is criminal in nature and interacts with other federal laws and Emirate-level regulations, individuals and companies facing a potential issue should consult qualified legal counsel in the United Arab Emirates at an early stage. Experienced legal advisers can:
- Review corporate policies, internal procedures, marketing materials, digital content policies and third-party arrangements for alignment with the anti-discrimination, anti-hatred and anti-extremism framework.
- Provide tailored training to boards of directors, senior management, compliance teams and staff based on the organisation’s risk profile, industry sector and exposure to public communications.
- Assist in the design and implementation of internal investigations, remediation plans and reporting protocols, and represent clients in investigations or proceedings initiated by the Public Prosecution or other competent authorities, ensuring that rights are protected and that appropriate remedial steps are taken.
Upholding the values embedded in the United Arab Emirates anti-discrimination and anti-hatred framework is both a legal obligation and a commercial and ethical imperative in a diverse and globally connected economy. Individuals and businesses that understand and proactively implement the requirements of Federal Law by Decree No. 34 of 2023, and that remain aware of its replacement of the earlier Federal Decree Law No. 2 of 2015, will be better positioned to operate securely, protect their reputation, meet the expectations of regulators and society, and contribute to a culture of tolerance and respect that the United Arab Emirates has placed at the core of its legal and social policy.
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Article by ProConsult Advocates & Legal Consultants, the Leading Dubai Law Firm providing full legal services & legal representation in UAE courts.
